This blog examines the importance of core stability training for female gymnasts, aged 16-year+.
What is Core Stability?
Core stability has two interlinking components (Hibbs, Thompson, French, Wrigley & Spears, 2008):
Core stability teaches simultaneous contraction of trunk muscles and trains the central nervous system to sense and prepare the spine for expected/unexpected internal/external forces (from load or limbs) (Hodges, 2003, Moseley, Hodges & Gandevia, 2002; Gardner-Morse, Stokes & Laible, 1995). This promotes musculoskeletal benefits such as coordinated, powerful movements, improved posture, and injury prevention - important for athletes (including gymnasts) and rehabilitation patients (Cowley & Swenson, 2008; Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Lawrence, 2007; Leetun, Ireland, Willson, Ballantyne, & Davis, 2004; Willson, Dougherty, Ireland & Davis., 2005).
Since the 1980-90’s scientific evidence reported injury prevention and improved functional ability using core stability – however, performance translation is inconclusive so aerobic/anaerobic or skill specific training should be the main program contributor (Behm, Drinkwater, Willardson & Cowley, 2010; Nuzzo, McCaulley, Cormie, Cavill & McBride, 2008; Marshall& Murphy, 2005; McLean, 2006; Willardson, 2004; Young, 2006).
What is the ‘core’?
· The muscles and joints of the lumbopelvic area: trunk, abdominals and hips (Hibbs et al., 2008; Hodges, 2003).
Below are some core muscles:
A wide variety of exercises impact muscle groups and types (rather than isolating) training
the body as a unit to reflect sports performance and develop stability, preventing muscle imbalance and injury incidence (Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Gardner-Morse et al., 1995; Hongtao, Bai & Yanchun, 2002; Lawrence, 2007).
So how does core stability improve gymnastic performance, you haven’t seen other coaches use this? Is this because they perceive it as unbeneficial? Read on to see the benefits.
Balance, Power and Strength
As you are aware balance, power and strength (to support body weight) are essential when performing complex repetitive movements, take-offs and landings (Hodges, 2003; Hongtao et al., 2002; Lawrence, 2007).
Core stability can:
1. Strengthen prime movers and synergists preventing muscle imbalance, tightness and fatigue, improving balance. Overtraining superficial muscles creates weak stabilisers, negatively affecting balance (Akuthota et al., 2008; Davidson, Madigan & Nussbaum, 2004; Hume, 2001; Konrad, Schmitz & Denner, 2001; Lawrence, 2007; Van Dieën, Luger & Van Der Eb, 2012).
2. Enhance functional ability, balance, power and strength translating moderately to performance; however admittedly there is no gold standard test available to assess core stability and limited research specific to gymnastics (Akuthota et al., 2008; Behm et al., 2010; Caine, Cochrane, Caine & Zemper, 1989; Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Hibbs, et al., 2008; Hume, 2001; Liemohn, Baumgartner & Gagon, 2005; Ma, Liu & Yuan, 2002; Nesser, Huxel, Tincher & Okada, 2008; Stanton, Raeburn & Humphries, 2004).
3. Stiffen joints and restrict intervertebral movement – preventing hypermobility (common cause of LBP and injury in gymnasts). Trunk and lower extremity injuries are common from hyper-mobility particularly during landings when considerable amounts of compressive, torsion and shear forces are applied to trunk, hip and legs (Caine et al., 1989; Hume, 2001; Marinšek, 2010; McNitt-Gray, 1993; Lawrence, 2007).
-Combined these improve kinetic chain efficiency (Marinšek, 2010; Hodges, 2003; Oliver, Dwelly, Sarantis, Helmer & Bonacci, 2010).
I hope this has stimulated interest in using core stability as a training method for your gymnast, read on for suggested exercises. Static (stabilising), dynamic (flexion and rotation) and resistance exercises are all important for gymnasts and can be performed in stable (floor, benches) and unstable environments (stability balls, wobble boards).
Static
-Occur when beginning programs
-Stable environment
-No movement (Jefferys 2002)
-Activate deep stabilisers using abdominal contractions (Fredericson & Moore, 2005).
-Emphasises correct neutral alignment of spine and pelvis: eliminating curvature or ‘pelvic tilting’ (Akuthota et al., 2008).
-Develop neutral posture: correct alignment of intervertebral bodies; normal diaphragmatic breathing; optimises stability, functional ability decreasing injury incidence and muscle and joint discomfort (Akuthota et al. 2008; Hodges, 2003; Lawrence, 2007).
So, your gymnast says the brain controls posture so how can it be wrong? This is true however, over time bad habits such as slouching alters the brains ‘ideal’ posture.
Slouching can cause muscle tightness and imbalance (also associated with pelvic tilting), due to weak stabiliser muscles and possibly incorrect footwear and injury, causing disc problems and osteoarthritis in later life if uncorrected (Lawrence, 2007).
So, now she is convinced, no time like the present - follow the steps below to correct her posture!
What about on a stability ball?
Progression: (one aspect at a time, interchanging principles once each is mastered)
Exercise selection: arm raises > leg raises > ‘superman’
Volume: 15s> 20s > 30s
Intensity: body weight > light weight > moderate weight
Dynamic
- Main core developer and translator to sporting performance, responsible for core stability maintenance (Jefferys 2002; Fredericson & Moore, 2005).
- Involves sensory motor training and dynamic stabilisation (for example deceleration): functional exercises stimulate the subcortex advancing balance, coordination and skill acquisition using stabilisation, flexion and rotation exercises (Akuthota et al., 2008; Jefferys 2002;Fredericson & Moore, 2005).
Progression:
Exercise selection: abdominal curl > twisting curl > ball curl
Volume: (1 set) 10 reps > 15 reps > 20 reps
Intensity: body weight > 1-3kg medicine ball > 3-6kg medicine ball
Resistance and weight
-Strengthen superficial and underlying stabilizing muscles, optimising sports performance (Jefferys, 2002).
-Popular among coaches and athletes, particularly in unstable environments but safe progression is difficult without increasing injury incidence by overloading weight or decreasing stability (Willardson, 2004).
-Instability and resistance alone enhance core stability, balance and strength respectively, but does combining them enhance sports performance? Is there too much focus on balance rather than skill execution? (Chulvi-Medrano, García-Massó, Colado, Pablos, De Moraes & Fuster, 2010; Marshall & Moore, 2005).
-Once mastered instability resistance, progress to functional standing exercises is advised (Stanton et al., 2004).
Progression:
Exercise selection: ¼ squat > ½ squat > full squat.
Additionally, once a full squat is mastered, incorporate a twisting action reaching to right then left ankles. Further progression to one-legged squat could occur.
Intensity: body weight > light load > medium load
Volume: (1 set) 10 reps > 12 reps > 15 reps
Alternative Exercises
Pilates and yoga:
-Conditions core muscles (namely transversus abdominus, internal obliques and multifidus) to improve spine stability and alignment, inner strength and flexibility.
-Reduces muscle tightness and imbalances - stretching out affected areas.
-Trains the mind to control the body; developing bodily coordination and awareness (Lawrence, 2007).
-Decreases injury incidence.
-Yoga clears the mind - particularly useful before competition.
Health and Safety
Before beginning core stability training, consider the following health and safety points to reduce the risk of injury:
1. Core training can affect medical conditions such as high blood pressure so ensure medical clearance is obtained (Petko, 2006).
2. A non-slip clear floor is necessary: no large or sharp items nearby. Mats are optional but can minimise discomfort during floor exercises (Petko, 2006).
3. Check stability balls are firm, undamaged (discard if present) and away from intense heat (Petko, 2006).
4. Complete a suitable warm up involving aerobic activity, static and yoga stretching, (Akuthota et al., 2008).
5. Confirm the gymnast understands technique, particularly in resistance and stability exercises (Petko, 2006)
6. Progression must occur: exercise selection (beginner, intermediate and advanced), volume (sets/reps) and intensity (load). Stop if the gymnast feels discomfort or dizziness (Akuthota et al. 2008; Petko, 2006).
7. Loads should not be excessive as this can injure the back (Lawrence, 2007).
8. Gait analysis should be assessed before performing standing exercises to ensure safe technique during weight acceptance (Akuthota et al., 2008).
9. Suitable footwear: preferably a training shoe with shock absorbing properties, correctly fitted and fastened providing stability for the ankle.
Next, assess your gymnast for muscle imbalances, for example using the overhead squat test, applying stretching and soft-tissue techniques regressing current issues, improving mobility if required (Akuthota et al. 2008; Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Lawrence, 2007).
Example: Tight hip-flexors
This can affect pelvic tilt. Stretches targeting muscles such as illiopsoas reduce tightness. Once mobility is regained strengthen muscles such as gluteals to support lumbar spine, correcting posture (Akuthota et al., 2008; Fredericson & Moore, 2005).
Core training can then begin based on current ability and sport demands to increase program effectiveness, using previously described progression principles (Jefferys 2002; Fredericson & Moore, 2005).
Exercises usually progress in stages. If your gymnast has never performed core stability training, postural alignment and abdominal activation/bracing exercises must be taught (Akuthota et al. 2008).
Stable dynamic exercises are then implemented, which begin to develop strength enforcing previous concepts of postural alignment, such as abdominal curls (Akuthota et al. 2008; Jefferys, 2002; Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Lawrence, 2007). Applying more complex ‘hold’ exercises is recommended for gymnasts, for example the plank to enhance spinal stability (Bassett & Leach, 2011).
These exercises provide the foundation of movement so progression to resistance and instability must occur to further develop core strength and balance (Hongtao et al., 2002).
Increasing load/resistance over time develops core strength and power, particularly to synergists and stabilisers, optimised with functional exercises to stimulate cerebella activity preventing performance plateaus and improving automatic postural control – particularly found with medicine balls and squatting (Jefferys, 2002; Lawrence, 2007; Willardson, 2007).
Instability activates synergists and combining this with resistance particularly promotes balance, stability and strength (Akuthota et al., 2008; Jefferys, 2002; Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Lawrence, 2007). Wobble boards are the safest method to progress instability resistance; also aiding postural control (Akuthota et al. 2008; Fredericson & Moore, 2005; Jefferys, 2002; Lawrence, 2007).
N.B. Loads and resistance should be based on current strength, progressing from body weight, to light then heavier weights. Gymnasts should aim to master movements against sufficient resistance for desired power and strength adaptations - not to use the heaviest (as in weight lifting) (Lawrence, 2007).
Additionally, core stability training must not stop or replace strength/power, anaerobic/aerobic training as benefits and performance will regress respectively (Behm et al., 2010).
References
Akuthota, V & Nadler, S. F. (2004) ‘Core Strengthening’, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 85(3), pp. 86-92
Akuthota, V., Ferreiro, A., Moore, T. & Fredericson, M. (2008) ‘Core Stability Exercise Principles’,Current Sports Medicine Reports,7(1), pp.39-44
Bassett, S. H. & Leach, L. L. (2011) ‘The Effect of an Eight-Week Training Programme on Core Stability in Female Junior Elite Gymnasts’, African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 17(3), pp. 9-19
Behm, D. G., Drinkwater, E. J., Willardson, J. M. & Cowley, P. M. (2010) ‘The Use of Instability to Train the Core Musculature’, Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 35(1), pp. 91-108
Behm, D. G., Kenneth, A. & Curnnew, R. S. (2002) ‘Muscle Force and Activation under Stable and Unstable Conditions’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16(3), pp.416-422
Caine, D., Cochrane, B., Caine, C & Zemper, E. (1989) ‘An epidemiologic Investigation of Injuries Affecting Young Competitive Female Gymnasts’, The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 17(6), pp. 811-820
Caine, D.J., Lindner, K.J., Mandelbaum, B.R., Sands, W.A. (1996) ‘Gymnastics’ Cited in: Caine, C.G., Caine, D.J., & Lindner KJ, (Eds.) Epidemiology of sports injuries. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Chulvi-Medrano, I., García-Massó, X., Colado, J. C., Pablos, C., De Moraes, J. A. & Fuster, M. A. () ‘Deadlift Muscle Force and Activation Under Stable and Unstable Conditions’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(10), pp. 2723-2730
Cowley, P. M & Swenson, T. C (2008) ‘Development and Reliability of Two Core Stability Field Tests’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(2), pp. 619-624
Davidson, B. S., Madigan, M. L. & Nussbaum, M. A. (2004) ‘Effects of Lumbar Extensor Fatigue and Fatigue Rate on Postural Sway’, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 93, pp. 183-189.
Fredericson, M. & Moore, T. (2005) ‘Muscular Balance, Core Stability, and Injury Prevention for Middle- and Long-Distance Runners’, Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 16, pp. 669–689
Gardner-Morse, M., Stokes, I. A. & Laible, J. P. (1995) ‘Role of Muscles in Lumbar Spine Stability in Maximum Extension Efforts’, Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 13(5), pp. 802-808
Hongtao, M., Bai, L. & Yanchun, Y. (2002) ‘The Study of Methods of Functional Core Stability for Gymnastics Training’, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 34(4), pp. 51
Hume, P. (2008) Minimising Injuries in Gymnastic Activities. Available at: http://www.coachesinfo.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=185:gymnastics-isbs-minimising&catid=62:gymnastics-isbs&Itemid=108 (Accessed: 24/04/2012)
Jeffreys, I. (2002) ‘Developing a Progressive Core Stability Program’, Strength & Conditioning Journal, 24(5), pp. 65–66
Konrad, P., Schmitz, K. & Denner, A. (2001) ‘Neuromuscular Evaluation of Trunk-Training Exercises’, Journal of Athletic Training, 36(2), pp. 109-118
Lawrence, M. (2003) The Complete Guide to Core Stability, 2nd edn. London: A & C Black Publishers
Leetun, D. T., Ireland, M. L., Willson, J. D., Ballantyne, B. T. & Davis, I. M. (2004) ‘Core Stability Measures as Risk Factors for Lower Extremity Injury in Athletes’, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(6), pp. 926-934
Liemohn, W. P., Baumgartner, T. A. & Gagon, L.H. (2005) ‘Measuring Core Stability’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 19(3), pp. 583-586.
Ma, H., Liu, B. & Yuan, Y. (2002) ‘The Study of Methods of Functional Core Stability for Gymnastics Training, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34 (5) pp.1-51
Marshall, P. W. & Murphy, B. A. (2005) ‘Core Stability Exercises On and Off a Swiss Ball’, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86 (2), pp. 242-249
Marinšek, 2010 ‘Basic Landing Characteristics and their Application in Artistic Gymnastics’, 2(2), Science of Gymnastics Journal, pp. 59-67
McLean, C. (2006) Core Stability: Anatomical, Biomechanical and Psychological Evidence, Available at:
McNitt-Gray (1993) ‘Kinetics of the Lower Extremities during Drop Landings from Three Heights’, Journal of Biomechanics, 26 (9), pp. 1037-1046
Montenegro, M. (2012) Banish Achy Joint. Available at: http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/health/2012/02/13/marta-montenegro-banish-achy-joints/ (Accessed: 7/5/2012)
Moseley, G. L., Hodges, P. W. & Gandevia, S. C. (2002) ‘External Perturbation of the Trunk in Standing Humans Differentially Activates Components of the Medial Back Muscles’, The Journal of Physiology, 547(pt 2), pp. 581-587
Nesser, T. W., Huxel, K. C., Tincher, J. L. & Okada, T. (2008) ‘The Relationship between Core Stability and Performance in Division 1 Football Players’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(6), pp.1750-1754.
Nuzzo, J. L., McCaulley, G. O, Cormie, P., Cavill, M. J. & McBride, J. M (2008) ‘Trunk Muscle Activity During Stability Ball and Free Weight Exercises’, Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(1), pp. 95-102
Oliver, G. D., Dwelly, P.M., Sarantis, N. D., Helmer, R.A. & Bonacci, J. A. (2010) ‘Muscle Activation of Difference Core Exercises’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(11), pp. 3069-3074
Petkot, K. (2006) Core Stability: On the Ball, Victoria, BC: Trafford Publishing
Stanton, R., Raeburn, P. R. & Humphries, B. (2004) ‘The Effect of Short-Term Swiss Ball Training on Core Stability and Running Economy’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(3), pp. 522-528
Van Dieën, J. H., Luger, T. & Van Der Eb, J. (2012), Effects of Fatigue on Trunk Stability in Elite Gymnasts’, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 112(4), pp.1307-1313
Willardson, J. M. (2007) ‘Core Stability Training: Applications to Sports Conditioning Programs’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(3), pp. 979-985
Willson, J. D., Dougherty, C. P., Ireland, M. L. & Davis, I. M. (2005) ‘Core Stability and Its Relationship to Lower Extremity Function and Injury’, Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 13(5), pp. 316-325
Young, W. B. (2006) ‘Transfer of Strength and Power Training to Sports Performance’, International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 1(2), pp. 74-83
